Languages spoken in the South Pacific country Vanuatu
The Republic of Vanuatu has the world's highest linguistic density per capita.[ 1] Despite being a country with a population of less than 300,000,[ 2] Vanuatu is home to 138 indigenous Oceanic languages.
The country's three official languages are of foreign origin: English , French , and Bislama , an English-based creole language .
Additional languages are also spoken as a result of recent migrations (e.g. Samoan , Hakka Chinese , Mandarin Chinese ).
The linguistic situation in Vanuatu [ edit ] Indigenous languages [ edit ] There are over one hundred local languages spread over the archipelago (listed below ), all of them belonging to the Austronesian family of languages.
Vanuatu is the country with the highest density of languages per capita in the world: it currently shows an average of about 1,760 speakers for each indigenous language, and went through a historical low of 565;[ 1] only Papua New Guinea comes close. Some of these languages are very endangered , with only a handful of speakers, and indeed several have become extinct in recent times. Generally however, despite the low numbers for most of the indigenous languages, they are not considered especially vulnerable to extinction.[ 3]
A Bislama speaker, recorded in Vanuatu . Bislama , a creole language derived from English, similar to Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea and other nearby creoles, is the first language of many urban ni-Vanuatu , that is, the residents of Port Vila and Luganville ; it is the most common second language elsewhere in the Vanuatu islands.
In recent years, the use of Bislama as a first language has considerably encroached on indigenous languages, whose use in the population has receded from 73.1 to 63.2 percent between 1999 and 2009.[ 4]
Out of the three official languages, Bislama is the most spoken in Vanuatu, followed by English, and lastly French.
From the times when Vanuatu was a British-French condominium , there is still an unofficial separation line between regions where English or French are taught at school. According to Ethnologue , English is the first language of 6,000 people (2% of the population) and it is spoken as a second language by 120,000 people (40%).[ 5] French is the first language of 1,800 people (1%) and is spoken as a second language by 87,000 people (29%).[ 5]
The majority of the country's population (63.2% in 2009)[ 4] speak an indigenous language as their first language, with Bislama as a second language. English and French are generally spoken as third languages, in spite of their official status.
List of Vanuatu’s indigenous languages[ edit ] A speaker of Mwotlap , recorded in Vanuatu . Vanuatu is home to more than a hundred indigenous languages: a recent count lists 138.[ 6] Among them, three became extinct in recent decades. Many are named after the island they are spoken on, though some of the larger islands have several different languages. Espiritu Santo and Malakula are linguistically the most diverse, with about two dozen languages each.
Some language names refer to networks of dialects rather than unified languages. Uripiv, for example, is a dialect continuum spoken across several islands in Malampa Province . In such cases, the decision as to how many languages should be counted is notoriously difficult, and sometimes the object of controversy. The number of 112 listed below may differ from other counts proposed in the literature, depending partly on these difficulties.[ 7]
All indigenous languages of Vanuatu are Oceanic . Three are Polynesian languages of the Futunic group: Emae , Mele-Fila and Futuna-Aniwa . The remaining languages belong to these three groups of the Southern Oceanic branch of Oceanic:
Below is the Ethnologue 's list of most of the indigenous languages of Vanuatu, which are still spoken or were until recently.[ 8] It provides links to an OLAC list of media resources on the language.[ 9]
Tip: Click on the column title to change the sort order.
Language OLAC Other names Speakers % of total population Region Family Notes Akei tsr Tasiriki 650 0.2404 Espiritu Santo NCV Amblong alm 300 0.1109 Espiritu Santo NCV Anejom̃ aty Aneityum 900 0.3328 Aneityum SV Aore aor Extinct 0.0000 Espiritu Santo , Aore NCV Apma app 7,800 2.8846 Pentecost NCV Araki akr 8 0.0030 Araki NCV Moribund Aulua aul 750 0.2774 Malekula NCV Avava tmb Katbol 700 0.2589 Malekula NCV Axamb ahb Ahamb 750 0.2774 Malekula NCV Baetora btr 1,330 0.4919 Maewo NCV Baki bki Burumba, Paki 350 0.1294 Epi NCV Bierebo bnk Bonkovia-yevali 800 0.2959 Epi NCV Bieria brj Bieri, Vovo, Wowo 70 0.0259 Epi NCV Endangered Burmbar vrt Banan Bay, Vartavo 900 0.3328 Malekula NCV Butmas-Tur bnr Ati 520 0.1923 Espiritu Santo NCV Central Maewo mwo 1,400 0.5177 Maewo NCV Daakie ptv Port-Vato 1,300 0.4808 Ambrym NCV Daakaka bpa Baiap, South Ambrym 1,200 0.4438 Ambrym NCV Dixon Reef dix 50 0.0185 Malekula NCV Shifting Dorig wwo Wetamut 300 0.1109 Banks Islands (Gaua ) NCV Emae mmw 400 0.1479 Shepherd Islands (Emae ) Polynesian Eton etn 500 0.1849 Efate NCV Fortsenal frt Kiai 450 0.1664 Espiritu Santo NCV Futuna-Aniwa fut West Futuna 1,500 0.5547 Futuna , Aniwa Polynesian Hano lml Raga 6,500 2.4038 Pentecost NCV Hiw hiw Hiu 280 0.1035 Torres Islands (Hiw ) NCV Ifo iff Extinct 0.0000 Erromango SV Kwamera tnk 3,500 1.2944 Tanna SV Koro krf 250 0.0925 Banks Islands (Gaua ) NCV Lamenu lmu Lamen, Varmali 850 0.3143 Epi , Lamen NCV Lakon lkn Lakona; Vurē 800 0.2959 Banks Islands (Gaua ) NCV Lamap psw Port Sandwich 1,200 0.4438 Malekula NCV Larevat lrv Laravat 680 0.2515 Malekula NCV Lehali tql 200 0.0740 Banks Islands (Ureparapara ) NCV Lelepa lpa Havannah Harbour 400 0.1479 Lelepa , Efate NCV Lemerig lrz Sasar 2 0.0007 Banks Islands (Vanua Lava ) NCV Moribund Lenakel tnl 11,500 4.2529 Tanna SV Letemboi nms Small Nambas 800 0.2959 Malekula NCV Lewo lww Varsu 2,200 0.8136 Epi NCV Lonwolwol crc West Ambrym 1,200 0.4438 Ambrym NCV Lorediakarkar lnn 850 0.3143 Espiritu Santo NCV Lo-Toga lht Loh, Toga 580 0.2145 Torres Islands (Lo , Toga , Tegua ) NCV Löyöp urr Lehalurup 240 0.0888 Banks Islands (Ureparapara ) NCV Mae mme Dirak 1,000 0.3698 Malekula NCV Maii mmm 180 0.0666 Epi NCV Malfaxal mlx Na’ahai 600 0.2219 Malekula NCV Malua Bay mll Middle Nambas 500 0.1849 Malekula NCV Maragus mrs 15 0.0055 Malekula NCV Maskelynes klv 1,100 0.4068 Malekula , Maskelynes Islands NCV Mav̈ea mkv Mavea, Mafea 34 0.0126 Mav̈ea NCV Mele-Fila mxe Ifira-Mele 3,500 1.2944 Efate , Mele , Ifira Polynesian Merei lmb 400 0.1479 Espiritu Santo NCV Morouas mrp 150 0.0555 Espiritu Santo NCV Mota mtt 750 0.2774 Banks Islands (Mota ) NCV Mpotovoro mvt 430 0.1590 Malekula NCV Mwerlap mrm Merlav 1,100 0.4068 Banks Islands (Merelava ) NCV Mwesen msn Mosina 10 0.0037 Banks Islands (Vanua Lava ) NCV Mwotlap mlv Motlav 2,100 0.7766 Banks Islands (Motalava ) NCV Nahavaq sns South West Bay 700 0.2589 Malekula NCV Nakanamanga llp 9,500 3.5133 Efate , Shepherd Islands (Nguna , Tongoa ) NCV Namakura nmk Makura 3,750 1.3868 Efate , Shepherd Islands (Tongoa , Tongariki ) NCV Naman lzl Litzlitz 15 0.0055 Malekula NCV Narango nrg 160 0.0592 Espiritu Santo NCV Nasarian nvh 5 0.0018 Malekula NCV Navut nsw 520 0.1923 Espiritu Santo NCV Nese 160 0.0592 Malekula NCV Neverver lgk Lingarak 1,250 0.4623 Malekula NCV Ninde mwi Labo 1,100 0.4068 Malekula NCV Nisvai – Vetbon 140 0.0518 Malekula NCV Unesco Nokuku nkk 160 0.0592 Espiritu Santo NCV North Tanna tnn 5,000 1.8491 Tanna SV North Ambrym mmg 5,250 1.9416 Ambrym NCV Northeast Ambae omb Lolovoli; Aoba 5,000 1.8491 Ambae NCV Nume tgs Tarasag 700 0.2589 Banks Islands (Gaua ) NCV Olrat olr Extinct 0.0000 Banks Islands (Gaua ) NCV Paama paa Paamese 6,000 2.2189 Paama NCV Piamatsina ptr 150 0.0555 Espiritu Santo NCV Polonombauk plb 220 0.0814 Espiritu Santo NCV Repanbitip rpn 90 0.0333 Malekula NCV Rerep pgk Pangkumu, Tisman 380 0.1405 Malekula NCV Roria rga Mores 75 0.0277 Espiritu Santo NCV Saa sax Sa 2,500 0.9245 Pentecost NCV Sakao sku Hog Harbour, N'kep 4,000 1.4793 Espiritu Santo , Sakao NCV Shark Bay ssv 450 0.1664 Espiritu Santo , Litaro NCV Sie erg Se, Erromanga 1,900 0.7027 Erromango SV Ske ske Seke 300 0.1109 Pentecost NCV South Efate erk Erakor, Nafsan 6,000 2.2189 Efate NCV Southeast Ambrym tvk 3,700 1.3683 Ambrym NCV Southwest Tanna nwi 5,000 1.8491 Tanna SV Sowa sww Extinct 0.0000 Pentecost NCV Sungwadia mrb Marino; North Maewo 500 0.1849 Maewo NCV Tamambo mla Malo; Tamabo 4,000 1.4793 Malo NCV Tambotalo tls 50 0.0185 Espiritu Santo NCV Tangoa tgp 800 0.2959 Tangoa NCV Tasmate tmt 150 0.0555 Espiritu Santo NCV Tiale mnl 400 0.1479 Espiritu Santo NCV Tolomako tlm 900 0.3328 Espiritu Santo NCV Tutuba tmi 500 0.1849 Espiritu Santo , Tutuba NCV Unua onu Onua 520 0.1923 Malekula NCV Ura uur 6 0.0022 Erromango SV Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin upv Uripiv 9,000 3.3284 Malekula NCV Valpei vlp 300 0.1109 Espiritu Santo NCV Vao vao 1,900 0.7027 Vao , Malekula NCV V’ënen Taut nmb Big Nambas 3,350 1.2389 Malekula NCV Vera’a vra Vatrata 500 0.1849 Banks Islands (Vanua Lava ) NCV Vinmavis vnm Neve’ei 500 0.1849 Malekula NCV Volow mlv Valuwa Extinct 0.0000 Banks Islands (Mota Lava ) NCV Vunapu vnp 380 0.1405 Espiritu Santo NCV Vurës msn Vureas, Mosina 2,000 0.7396 Banks Islands (Vanua Lava ) NCV Wailapa wlr 100 0.0370 Espiritu Santo NCV West Ambae nnd Duidui 8,700 3.2174 Ambae NCV Whitesands tnp 7,500 2.7736 Tanna SV Wusi wsi 300 0.1109 Espiritu Santo NCV
François et al. (2015)[ edit ] The following list of 138 Vanuatu languages is from François et al. (2015 :18-21).
No. Language Other names Speakers ISO 639-3 Region 1 Hiw Hiu 280 hiw Torres Islands (Hiw ) 2 Lo-Toga Loh , Toga 580 lht Torres Islands (Lo , Toga , Tegua ) 3 Lehali 200 tql Banks Islands (Ureparapara ) 4 Löyöp Lehalurup 240 urr Banks Islands (Ureparapara ) 5 Mwotlap Motlav 2100 mlv Banks Islands (Motalava ) 6 Volow Valuwa 1 mlv Banks Islands (Motalava ) 7 Mota 750 mtt Banks Islands (Mota ) 8 Lemerig Sasar 2 lrz Banks Islands (Vanua Lava ) 9 Vera'a Vatrata 500 vra Banks Islands (Vanua Lava ) 10 Vurës Vureas , Mosina 2000 msn Banks Islands (Vanua Lava ) 11 Mwesen Mosina 10 msn Banks Islands (Vanua Lava ) 12 Nume Tarasag 700 tgs Banks Islands (Gaua ) 13 Dorig Wetamut 300 wwo Banks Islands (Gaua ) 14 Koro 250 krf Banks Islands (Gaua ) 15 Olrat 3 olr Banks Islands (Gaua ) 16 Lakon Lakona , Vurē 800 lkn Banks Islands (Gaua ) 17 Mwerlap Merlav 1100 mrm Banks Islands (Merelava ) 18 Sungwadia Marino , North Maewo 500 mrb Maewo 19 Sungwadaga Central Maewo 1400 mwo Maewo 20 Baetora South Maewo , Sungaloge 1330 btr Maewo 21 East Ambae Lolovoli , Aoba 5000 omb Ambae 22 West Ambae Duidui 8700 nnd Ambae 23 Raga Hano 6500 lml Pentecost 24 Apma 7800 app Pentecost 25 Ske Seke 300 ske Pentecost 26 Sa Saa 3900 sax Pentecost 27 Tolomako Bigbay 900 tlm Espiritu Santo 28 Piamatsina 250 ptr Espiritu Santo 29 Vunapu 380 vnp Espiritu Santo 30 Valpei 300 vlp Espiritu Santo 31 Nokuku 250 nkk Espiritu Santo 32 Meri Tasmate , Oa 300 tmt Espiritu Santo 33 Wusi Kula 350 wsi Espiritu Santo 34 Bura 300 Espiritu Santo 35 Merei Tiale , Lametin 400 lmb , mnl Espiritu Santo 36 Mores Ko 200 mrp Espiritu Santo 37 Ande Morouas 500 Espiritu Santo 38 Toksiki Soisoru , Roria 200 rga Espiritu Santo 39 Kiai Fortsenal 450 frt Espiritu Santo 40 Moiso 100 Espiritu Santo 41 Kene 300 Espiritu Santo 42 Daruru 100 Espiritu Santo 43 Akei Tasiriki 4000 tsr Espiritu Santo 44 Retlatur 100 Espiritu Santo 45 Wailapa Ale 500 wlr Espiritu Santo 46 Farsaf Narango , Nambel 400 nrg Espiritu Santo 47 Varavara Amblong , Aje 300 alm Espiritu Santo 48 Narmoris 220 plb Espiritu Santo 49 Biliru Tambotalo 3 tls Espiritu Santo 50 Atin 120 Espiritu Santo 51 Ati Polonombauk , Meris 85 Espiritu Santo 52 Farnanto 100 Espiritu Santo 53 Se Fanafo 20 Espiritu Santo 54 Sinia Navut 520 nsw Espiritu Santo 55 Butmas-Tur Ati , Farafi 520 bnr Espiritu Santo 56 Ngen Shark Bay 450 ssv Espiritu Santo , Litaro 57 Tholp Nethalp 0 Espiritu Santo 58 Sakao Hog Harbour , Nkep 4000 sku Espiritu Santo 59 Mavea Mav̋ea , Mafea 34 mkv Espiritu Santo , Mavea 60 Tutuba 500 tmi Espiritu Santo , Tutuba 61 Aore 0 aor Espiritu Santo , Aore 62 Tamambo Malo , Tamabo 4000 mla Espiritu Santo , Malo 63 Tangoa Movono 370 tgp Espiritu Santo , Tangoa 64 Araki 8 akr Espiritu Santo , Araki 65 Axamb Ahamb 750 ahb Malakula 66 Lendamboi Small Nambas , Letemboi 800 nms Malakula 67 Nasvang 275 Malakula 68 Sörsörian 3 Malakula 69 Avok 500 Malakula , Avok 70 Uliveo Maskelynes 1100 klv Malakula , Maskelynes 71 Port Sandwich Lamap 1200 psw Malakula 72 Nisvai Vetbon 200 Malakula 73 Burmbar Banam Bay , Vartavo 900 vrt Malakula 74 Mbwenelang <10 Malakula 75 Aulua 750 aul Malakula 76 Niolean Repanbitip 90 rpn Malakula 77 Rerep Pangkumu , Tisman 380 pgk Malakula 78 Unua Onua 520 onu Malakula 79 Vivti <5 Malakula 80 Nitita <5 Malakula 81 Avava Katbol , Navava , Bangsa’ 700 tmb Malakula 82 Neverver Lingarak , Nevwervwer 1250 lgk Malakula 83 Litzlitz Naman 15 lzl Malakula 84 Uripiv Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin , Northeast Malakula 9000 upv Malakula , Atchin , Uripiv 85 Rutan ? Malakula 86 Botovro Mpotovoro 430 mvt Malakula 87 Vao 1900 vao Malakula , Vao 88 Alovas ? Malakula 89 Vovo 475 Malakula 90 Nese Matanvat 160 Malakula 91 Najit <5 Malakula 92 Malua Bay Middle Nambas 500 mll Malakula 93 Njav 10 Malakula 94 Tirax Mae , Dirak 1000 mme Malakula 95 V'ënen Taut Big Nambas 3350 nmb Malakula 96 Tape Maragus 15 mrs Malakula 97 Larëvat Laravat , Larevat 680 lrv Malakula 98 Neve'ei Vinmavis 500 vnm Malakula 99 Nivat <10 Malakula 100 Nasarian 5 nvh Malakula 101 Aveteian Dixon Reef 50 dix Malakula 102 Ninde Labo 1100 mwi Malakula 103 Nahavaq South West Bay , Siesip 700 sns Malakula 104 Nāti 25 Malakula 105 Naha'ai Malvaxal , Malfaxal 600 mlx Malakula 106 Navwien 5 Malakula 107 North Ambrym 5250 mmg Ambrym 108 Orkon Fanbak 30 Ambrym 109 Southeast Ambrym 3700 tvk Ambrym 110 Daakie Port Vato 1300 ptv Ambrym 111 Daakaka South Ambrym , Baiap 1200 bpa Ambrym 112 Dalkalaen 1000 Ambrym 113 Raljago West Ambrym , Lonwolwol <10 crc Ambrym 114 Paama Paamese 6000 paa Paama 115 Lamen Lamenu , Varmali 850 lmu Epi , Lamen 116 Lewo Varsu 2200 lww Epi 117 Bierebo Bonkovia-Yevali 900 bnk Epi 118 Baki Burumba , Paki 350 bki Epi 119 Mkir Maii 180 mmm Epi 120 Bieria Bieri , Vovo, Wowo 25 brj Epi 121 Namakura Makura , Namakir 3750 nmk Efate , Shepherd Islands (Tongoa , Tongariki ) 122 Emae Makatea 400 mmw Shepherd Islands (Emae ) 123 Nakanamanga 9500 llp Efate , Shepherd Islands (Nguna , Tongoa ) 124 Lelepa Havannah Harbour 400 lpa Efate , Lelepa 125 Eton 500 etn Efate 126 South Efate Erakor 6000 erk Efate 127 Mele-Fila Ifira-Mele 3500 mxe Efate , Mele , Ifira 128 Sie Se , Sie , Erromanga 1900 erg Erromango 129 Ura 6 uur Erromango 130 Utaha 0 iff Erromango 131 North Tanna 5000 tnn Tanna 132 Lenakel Netvaar 11500 tnl Tanna 133 Southwest Tanna Nawal 5000 nwi Tanna 134 Whitesands Narak 7500 tnp Tanna 135 Kwamera Nafe , Nɨfe 3500 tnk Tanna 137 Anejom̃ Aneityum 900 aty Aneityum 138 Futuna-Aniwa West Futuna 1500 fut Futuna , Aniwa
^ a b See François et al. (2015 :8-9); and also Crowley (2000 :50); François (2012 :86). ^ The estimate is 298,333 for July 2020 (source: “Vanuatu” , CIA World Factbook ). ^ Nettle, Daniel and Suzanne Romaine (2016). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages . Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-19-515246-3 . ^ a b François (2012 :104). ^ a b Vanuatu in Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2022). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (25th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. ^ See François et al. (2015 ). ^ Thus while Tryon (1976) lists 113 separate languages, Lynch & Crowley (2001), using different criteria, propose a lower figure of 88 languages, many of which are dialect continua. See the discussion in François et al. (2015 :4-7). ^ This table lists 112 languages. See François et al. (2015 :18-21) for a list of 138 items. ^ The bibliographical references that underlie this table can be found with each individual language entry. Crowley, Terry (2000), "The language situation in Vanuatu" (PDF) , Current Issues in Language Planning , 1 (1): 47–132, doi :10.1080/14664200008668005 , S2CID 144268250 , archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27, retrieved 2007-08-13 François, Alexandre (2012), "The dynamics of linguistic diversity: Egalitarian multilingualism and power imbalance among northern Vanuatu languages" (PDF) , International Journal of the Sociology of Language , 2012 (214): 85–110, doi :10.1515/ijsl-2012-0022 , S2CID 145208588 . François, Alexandre ; Franjieh, Michael; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Schnell, Stefan (2015), "The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu" (PDF) , in François, Alexandre; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Franjieh, Michael; Schnell, Stefan (eds.), The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity , Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access, pp. 1–21, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.730.9327 , ISBN 9781922185235 . Lynch, John; Crowley, Terry (2001). Languages of Vanuatu: a new survey and bibliography (PDF) . Pacific linguistics 517. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. doi :10.15144/pl-517 . hdl :1885/146135 . ISBN 0-85883-469-3 . Tryon, D.T. New Hebrides languages: An internal classification . C-50, vi + 550 pages. Pacific Linguistics , The Australian National University, 1976. doi :10.15144/PL-C50 Tryon, D.T. "The Languages of the New Hebrides: Internal and External Relationships". In Wurm, S.A. and Carrington, L. editors, Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics: Proceedings . C-61:877-902. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1978. doi :10.15144/PL-C61.877 Tryon, D.T. and Gly, R. Gazetteer of New Hebrides place names/Nomenclature des noms geographiques des Nouvelles-Hebrides . D-15, xxxvi + 188 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1979. doi :10.15144/PL-D15
Sovereign states Associated states of New Zealand Dependencies and other territories
* indicates proposed status ? indicates classification dispute † indicates extinct status