Jōmon people

Diorama of Jomon people at Sannai Maruyama.

Jōmon people (縄文 , Jōmon jin) is the generic name of the indigenous hunter-gatherer population that lived in the Japanese archipelago during the Jōmon period (c. 14,000 to 300 BC). They were united through a common Jōmon culture, which reached a considerable degree of sedentism and cultural complexity.

The Jōmon people are characterized by a deeply diverged East Asian ancestry and contributed around 5-15% ancestry to modern Japanese people.[1][2][3][4] Population genomic data from multiple Jōmon period remains suggest that they diverged from "Ancestral East Asians" prior to the divergence of Northern and Southern East Asians, sometime between 30,000 to 20,000 years ago, but after the divergence of "Basal East Asian" Tianyuan and Hoabinhian lineages. After their migration into the Japanese archipelago, they became largely isolated from outside geneflow at c. 15,000 to 20,000 BC.[5][6][3]

Culture[edit]

The culture of the Jōmon people was largely based on food collection and hunting, but it is also suggested that the Jōmon people practiced early agriculture.[7] They gathered tree nuts and shellfish, were involved in hunting and fishing, and also practiced some degree of agriculture. The Jōmon people also used stoneware and pottery, and generally lived in pit dwellings.[8]

Some elements of modern Japanese culture may have come from the Jōmon culture. Among these elements are the precursory beliefs to modern Shinto, some marriage customs, some architectural styles, and possibly some technological developments such as lacquerware, laminated yumi, metalworking, and glass making.

Pottery[edit]

The style of pottery created by the Jōmon people is identifiable for its "cord-marked" patterns, hence the name "Jōmon" (縄文, "straw rope pattern"). The pottery styles characteristic of the first phases of Jōmon culture used decoration created by impressing cords into the surface of wet clay, and are generally accepted to be among the oldest forms of pottery in East Asia and the world.[9] Next to clay pots and vessels, the Jōmon also made many highly stylized statues (dogū), clay masks, stone batons or rods and swords.[10]

Craftsmanship[edit]

Magatama – kidney-shaped beads – are commonly found in Jōmon period Japanese finds, as well as in parts of Northeast Asia and Siberia.

There is evidence that the Jōmon people built ships out of large trees and used them for fishing and traveling; however, there is no agreement as to whether they used sails or paddles.[11] The Jōmon people also used obsidian, jade and different kinds of wood.[12] The Jōmon people created many jewelry and ornamental items; for instance, magatama were likely invented by one of the Jōmon tribes, and are commonly found throughout Japan and less in Northeast Asia.[10]

Religion[edit]

It is suggested that the religion of the Jōmon people was similar to early Shinto (specifically Ko-Shintō). It was largely based on animism, and possibly shamanism. Other similar religions are the Ryukyuan and Ainu religions.[13]

Languages[edit]

It is not known what language or languages were spoken in Japan during the Jōmon period. Suggested languages are: the Ainu language, Japonic languages, Austronesian languages, or unknown and today extinct languages.[14][15] While the most supported view is to equate the Ainu language with the Jōmon language, this view is not uncontroversial or easily acceptable as there were probably multiple distinct language families spoken by the Jōmon period population of the Japanese archipelago.[16]

Alexander Vovin (1993) argues that the Ainu languages originated in Central Honshu, and were later pushed northwards into Hokkaido, where the early Ainu-speakers merged with local groups, forming the historical Ainu ethnicity. Bilingualism between Ainu and Japanese was common in Tohoku until the 10th century.[17][18] According to Vovin (2021) there is also some evidence for the presence of Austronesian languages close to the Japanese archipelago, which may have contributed some loanwords to the early Japanese.[18]

Some linguists suggest that the Japonic languages may have been already present within the Japanese archipelago and coastal Korea, before the Yayoi period, and can be linked to one of the Jōmon populations of southwestern Japan, rather than the later Yayoi or Kofun period rice-agriculturalists. Japonic-speakers then expanded during the Yayoi period, by assimilating the newcomers, adopting rice-agriculture, and fusing mainland Asian technologies with local traditions.[19]

Origins[edit]

The Jōmon people represent the descendants of the Paleolithic inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago, which became isolated from other mainland Asian groups some 22,000 to 23,000 years ago, with whom they share a common ancestor.[20][21]

Genetics[edit]

Phylogenetic position of the Jōmon lineage among other East Eurasians
Demographic history of the Jomon lineage (A) Maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree reconstructed by TreeMix under a model of two migrations
Principal component analysis (PCA) of ancient and present-day individuals from worldwide populations

The Jōmon lineage is inferred to have diverged from Ancient East Asians before the divergence of Ancient Northern East Asians and Ancient Southern East Asians, but after the divergence of the basal Tianyuan man and/or Hoabinhians.[22][23][21] The Jōmon people ultimately descended from the same source population, which expanding out of Mainland Southeast Asia using a Southern Route dispersal, as do other East Asians, but are deeply diverged from them.[24][21][25][26]

The Jōmon lineage furthermore displays a closer genetic affinity to both the Ancient Northern and Southern East Asian lineages than they do to Basal East Asian Tianyuan or Hoabinhian lineages.[21] Beyond their genetic affinity with other Eastern Asian lineages, the Jomon also display a weak and only marginal relevant affinity for the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site specimen, associated with Ancient North Siberians (ANE/ANS), which may point to geneflow between both groups prior to their isolation from other populations.[27]

Full genome studies on multiple Jōmon remains revealed them to carry gene alleles associated with a higher alcohol tolerance, wet earwax, no derived variant of the EDAR gene, and that they likely frequently consumed fatty sea and land animals. They also carried alleles for medium to light skin, dark and fine/thin hair, and brown eyes. Some samples also displayed a higher risk of developing liver spots if spending to much time in the sun.[25][28][6]

Jomon and Continental Asian contributions to modern Japanese

Genetic data further indicates that the Jōmon peopled were genetically predisposed for short stature, as well as higher triglyceride and blood sugar levels. Modern Japanese share these alleles with the Jōmon period population, although at lower and variable frequency, inline with the inferred admixture among modern Japanese peoples.[25]

Haplogroups[edit]

It is thought that the haplogroups D-M55 (D1a2a) and C1a1 were frequent among the historical Jōmon period people of Japan. O-M119 is also suggested to have been presented in at least some Jōmon period remains. One 3,800 year old Jōmon man excavated from Rebun Island was found to belong to Haplogroup D1a2b1(D-CTS 220).[29] Today, haplogroup D-M55 is found in about 35%[30] and haplogroup C1a1 in about 6% of modern Japanese people. D-M55 is found regularly only in Japanese (Ainu, Ryukyuans, and Yamato) and, albeit with much lower frequency, in Koreans.[31] D-M55 also has been observed sporadically in individuals from Micronesia, Timor, and China. Haplogroup C1a1 has been found regularly in about 6% of modern Japanese. Elsewhere, it has been observed sporadically in individuals from South Korea, North Korea (South Hwanghae Province), and China (ethnic Korean in Ning'an and Han Chinese in Linghai, Guancheng Hui District, Haigang District, and Dinghai District).[32] A 2021 study estimated that the frequency of the D-M55 clade increased during the late Jōmon period.[33] The divergence between the D1a2-M55 and the D1a-F6251 subclades (the latter of which is common in Tibetans, other Tibeto-Burmese groups, and Altaians, and has a moderate distribution in the rest of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia) may have occurred near the Tibetan Plateau.[34]

The MtDNA haplogroup diversity of the Jōmon people is characterized by the presence of haplogroups M7a and N9b. Studies published in 2004 and 2007 show the combined frequency of M7a and N9b observed in modern Japanese to be from 12~15% to 17% in mainstream Japanese.[35][36] N9b is frequently found among the Hokkaido Jomons while M7a is found frequently among the Honshu Jomons.[37] However N9b is found only at very low percentage among the Honshu Jomon.[38] M7a is estimated to share a most recent common ancestor with M7b'c, a clade whose members are found mainly in Japan (including Jōmon people), other parts of East Asia, and Southeast Asia, 33,500 (95% CI 26,300 <-> 42,000) years before present.[39] All extant members of haplogroup M7a are estimated to share a most recent common ancestor 20,500 (95% CI 14,700 <-> 27,800) years before present.[39] Haplogroup M7a now has its highest frequency in Okinawa.

Morphological characteristics[edit]

Male skull of the late Jōmon period (replica). Excavated at Miyano Kaizuka (Iwate Prefecture). Exhibition in National Museum of Nature and Science.[40]

Several studies of numerous Jōmon skeletal remains that were excavated from various locations in the Japanese archipelago allowed researchers to learn more about the Jōmon period population of Japan. The Jōmon people were relatively close to other East Asian people, however shared more similarities with Native American samples. Within Japan, regional variance among different Jōmon remains was detected. Historically, the Jōmon people were classified as Mongoloid.[41][42]

Forensic reconstruction from a Jōmon skull, displayed at Niigata Prefectural Museum of History.

Dental morphology suggests that the Jōmon had Sundadont dental structure which is more common among modern Southeast Asians and Indigenous Taiwanese, and is ancestral to the Sinodont dental structure commonly found among modern Northeast Asians, suggesting that the Jōmon split from the common "Ancestral East Asians" prior to the formation of modern Northeast Asians.[43]

Kondo et al. 2017, analyzed the regional morphological and craniometric characteristics of the Jōmon period population of Japan, and found that they were morphologically heterogeneous and displayed differences along a Northeast to Southwest cline. They concluded that the "Jomon skulls, especially in the neurocranium, exhibit a discernible level of northeast-to-southwest geographical cline across the Japanese archipelago, placing the Hokkaido and Okinawa samples at both extreme ends. The following scenarios can be hypothesized with caution: (a) the formation of Jomon population seemed to proceed in eastern or central Japan, not western Japan (Okinawa or Kyushu regions); (b) the Kyushu Jomon could have a small-sized and isolated population history; and (c) the population history of Hokkaido Jomon could have been deeply rooted and/or affected by long-term extrinsic gene flows."[44]

According to Chatters et al., the Jōmon display some similarities to the Native American Kennewick Man.[45] Chatters, citing anthropologist C. Loring Brace, classified Jōmon and Polynesians as a single craniofacial "Jomon-Pacific" cluster.[46] Chatters, citing Powell, argues that the Jōmon most resembled the Native American Kennewick Man and Polynesians. According to him, the Ainu descend from the Jōmon people, an East Asian population with "closest biological affinity with south-east Asians rather than western Eurasian peoples".[45][47] Powell further elaborates that dental analysis showed the Jōmon to be of the Sundadont type.[46]

A 2021 study found evidence for limited geneflow into the Hokkaido Jōmon population from a "Terminal Upper-Paleolithic people" (TUP people) indigenous to Paleolithic Northern Eurasia. The proper Jōmon groups arrived at about 15,000 BC from Honshu, and merged with the earlier arrived "Terminal Upper-Paleolithic" groups.[48] A previous study by Gakuhari et al. 2020 noted the possibility of geneflow from Ancient North Eurasians (samplified by the MA-1 sample), or a similar group, into northern Japan, which may be linked to the introduction of the microblade culture of Siberia.[49]

ATL retrovirus[edit]

A gene common in Jōmon people is a retrovirus of ATL (human T lymphotropic virus, HTVL-I). This virus was discovered as a cause of adult T cell leukemia (ATL), and research was advanced by Takuo Hinuma of Kyoto University Virus Research Institute.

Although it was known that many virus carriers existed in Japan, it was not found at all in neighboring countries of East Asia. Meanwhile, it has been found in many Africans, Native Americans, Tibetans, Siberians, Burmese people, Indigenous people of New Guinea, Polynesians, etc. Looking at distribution in Japan, it is seen particularly frequently in southern Kyushu, Nagasaki Prefecture, Okinawa and among the Ainu. And it is seen at medium frequency in the southern part of Shikoku, southern part of the Kii Peninsula, the Pacific side of the Tōhoku region (Sanriku) and Oki Islands. Overall, carriers of the ATL retrovirus were found to be more common in remote areas and remote islands. When examining the well-developed areas of ATL in each region of Kyushu, Shikoku, and Tōhoku in detail, carriers are preserved at high rates in small settlements that were isolated from the surroundings and inconvenient for traffic.

The path of natural infection of this virus is limited to vertical infection between women and children (most often through breastfeeding) and horizontal infection between males and females (most often from males to females through sexual intercourse).[50]

Based on the above, Hinuma concluded that the high frequency area of this virus indicates the high density remain of Jōmon people.[51]

Contributions to other populations[edit]

Historical groups[edit]

Full genome analyses of Okhotsk culture remains on Sakhalin found them to be derived from three major sources, notably Ancient Northeast Asians, Ancient Paleo-Siberians, and Jōmon people of Japan. An admixture analysis revealed them to carry c. 54% Ancient Northeast Asian, c. 22% Ancient Paleo-Siberian, and c. 24% Jōmon ancestries respectively.[52]

Genetic analyses on ancient remains from the southern Korean Peninsula revealed elevated Jōmon ancestry at c. 37%, while Yayoi remains in Japan were found to carry nearly equal amounts of Jōmon ancestry (35–60%) and Ancient Northeast Asian-like ancestry (40–65%). These results suggest the presence of a Jōmon-like population on the Korean peninsula and their significant contribution to the formation of early Japonic-speakers. As such, the "agricultural transition in prehistoric Japan involved the process of assimilation, rather than replacement, with almost equal genetic contributions from the indigenous Jomon" and mainland Asian migrants of the Mumun/Yayoi period.[53][54]

Modern groups[edit]

The Ainu are among the modern groups displaying the highest amounts Jōmon-derived ancestry.

Jōmon-associated ancestry is commonly found throughout the Japanese archipelago, ranging from c. 15% among modern Japanese people, to c. 35% among Ryukyuan people, and up to c. 75% among modern Ainu people, and at lower frequency among surrounding groups, such as the Nivkhs or Ulch people, but also Koreans and other coastal groups, suggesting that the Jōmon were not completely isolated from other groups.[6][28][55][56][57]

In popular culture[edit]

Aspects of the Jōmon culture and pottery were used in the video game The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild. Nintendo's art director Takizawa Satoru said that the Jōmon culture was the inspiration for the "Sheikah slates, shrines and other ancient objects" in the game.[58]

A recreated Jōmon village in the form of an experience park (Sarashina no Sato), which offers different activities, can be visited in Chikuma, Nagano.[59]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  2. ^ Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki; Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, Morten; Sato, Takehiro; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Chuinneagáin, Blánaid; Matsumae, Hiromi; Koganebuchi, Kae; Schmidt, Ryan; Mizushima, Souichiro (15 March 2019). "Jomon genome sheds light on East Asian population history". pp. 3–5. bioRxiv 10.1101/579177.
  3. ^ a b Osada, Naoki; Kawai, Yosuke (2021). "Exploring models of human migration to the Japanese archipelago using genome-wide genetic data". Anthropological Science. 129 (1): 45–58. doi:10.1537/ase.201215. S2CID 234247309.
  4. ^ Cooke, Niall P.; Mattiangeli, Valeria; Cassidy, Lara M.; Okazaki, Kenji; Stokes, Caroline A.; Onbe, Shin; Hatakeyama, Satoshi; Machida, Kenichi; Kasai, Kenji; Tomioka, Naoto; Matsumoto, Akihiko; Ito, Masafumi; Kojima, Yoshitaka; Bradley, Daniel G.; Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki (2021). "Ancient genomics reveals tripartite origins of Japanese populations". Science Advances. 7 (38): eabh2419. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.2419C. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abh2419. PMC 8448447. PMID 34533991. This is consistent with the mean Jomon component of 9.31% in the present-day Japanese individuals estimated from our ADMIXTURE analysis (Fig. 2C). Table S17 qpAdm admixture: 12.8% and 13.1%.
  5. ^ Cooke, Niall P.; Mattiangeli, Valeria; Cassidy, Lara M.; Okazaki, Kenji; Stokes, Caroline A.; Onbe, Shin; Hatakeyama, Satoshi; Machida, Kenichi; Kasai, Kenji; Tomioka, Naoto; Matsumoto, Akihiko (September 2021). "Ancient genomics reveals tripartite origins of Japanese populations". Science Advances. 7 (38): eabh2419. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.2419C. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abh2419. PMC 8448447. PMID 34533991.
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  8. ^ Crawford, Gary W. (2011). "Advances in Understanding Early Agriculture in Japan". Current Anthropology. 52 (S4): S331–S345. doi:10.1086/658369. JSTOR 10.1086/658369. S2CID 143756517.
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  17. ^ Vovin, Alexander (1993). A Reconstruction of Proto-Ainu. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09905-0.
  18. ^ a b Vovin, Alexander (21 December 2021). "Austronesians in the Northern Waters?". International Journal of Eurasian Linguistics. 3 (2): 272–300. doi:10.1163/25898833-00320006. ISSN 2589-8833. S2CID 245508545.
  19. ^ Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Driem, George van (2020). "Munda languages are father tongues, but Japanese and Korean are not". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2: e19. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.14. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10427457. PMID 37588351. The Japonic-speaking Early Jōmon people must have been drawn in to avail themselves of the pickings of Yayoi agricultural yields, and the Yayoi may have prospered and succeeded in multiplying their paternal lineages precisely because they managed to accommodate the Jōmon linguistically and in material ways."
    "The dual nature of Japanese population structure was advanced by Miller, who proposed that the resident Jōmon population spoke an Altaic language ancestral to modern Japanese, and this Altaic tongue underwent Austronesian influence when the islanders absorbed the bearers of the incursive Yayoi culture.
  20. ^ Adachi, Noboru; Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Hideaki; Nara, Takashi; Kakuda, Tsuneo; Nishida, Iwao; Shinoda, Ken-Ichi (2021). "Ancient genomes from the initial Jomon period: new insights into the genetic history of the Japanese archipelago". Anthropological Science. 129 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1537/ase.2012132. As mentioned above, Jomon people are descendants of a common ancestor, although the process of their formation is still unknown. However, their origin dates back to the Paleolithic period based on the distribution of mitochondrial DNA haplogroups of the Jomon people and the age of divergence, which was 22000–23000 YBP (Adachi et al., 2011), and their phylogenetic basal position in the nuclear genome analysis (Kanzawa-Kiriyama et al., 2019).
  21. ^ a b c d Yang, Melinda A. (6 January 2022). "A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia". Human Population Genetics and Genomics. 2 (1): 1–32. doi:10.47248/hpgg2202010001. ISSN 2770-5005. Like Longlin, they are more closely related to 9,000–4,000-year-old East Asians from coastal China than to Tianyuan or Hòabìnhians, but are an outgroup of these northern and southern East Asians. Some have argued for the presence of excess connections to Hòabìnhians by fitting the data to a graph that includes admixture with a Hòabìnhian-related population and finding different f4 patterns for Hòabìnhians compared to younger Southeast Asians in comparisons to a Jōmon individual [63]; however, alternative admixture graphs and f4-statistic comparisons do not show evidence for this connection [68,85,86]. ... Together, the genetic patterns described above show that the ESEA lineage differentiated into at least three distinct ancestries: Tianyuan ancestry which can be found 40,000-33,000 years ago in northern East Asia, ancestry found today across present-day populations of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Siberia, but whose origins are unknown, and Hòabìnhian ancestry found 8,000-4,000 years ago in Southeast Asia, but whose origins in the Upper Paleolithic are unknown.
  22. ^ Osada, Naoki; Kawai, Yosuke (2021). "Exploring models of human migration to the Japanese archipelago using genome-wide genetic data". Anthropological Science. 129 (1): 45–58. doi:10.1537/ase.201215. Most Southeast, East, and Northeast Asian populations, including Jomon, are nearly equally distant from the Tianyuan individual, supporting the hypothesis that the Tianyuan population are diverged from the lineage basal to all East and Northeast Asians.
  23. ^ Cooke, Niall P.; Mattiangeli, Valeria; Cassidy, Lara M.; Okazaki, Kenji; Stokes, Caroline A.; Onbe, Shin; Hatakeyama, Satoshi; Machida, Kenichi; Kasai, Kenji; Tomioka, Naoto; Matsumoto, Akihiko (September 2021). "Ancient genomics reveals tripartite origins of Japanese populations". Science Advances. 7 (38): eabh2419. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.2419C. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abh2419. PMC 8448447. PMID 34533991. Our results infer that Jomon emerged after the early divergences of Upper Paleolithic East Eurasians (Tianyuan and Salkhit) and ancient Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers (Hoabinhian), but before the splitting off of other samples including present-day East Asians, an ancient Nepali (Chokhopani), hunter-gatherers from Baikal (Shamanka_EN and Lokomotiv_EN) and Chertovy Vorota Cave (Devil's Gate Cave) in the Primorye Region, and a Pleistocene Alaskan (USR1).
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  25. ^ a b c Watanabe, Yusuke; Ohashi, Jun (June 2023). "Modern Japanese ancestry-derived variants reveal the formation process of the current Japanese regional gradations". iScience. 26 (3): 106130. Bibcode:2023iSci...26j6130W. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2023.106130. ISSN 2589-0042. PMC 9984562. PMID 36879818. Whole-genome analyses extracted from the remains of the Jomon people showed that they were highly differentiated from other East Asians, forming a basal lineage to East and Northeast Asians.8,10,11 The genetic relationship between Jomon individuals and other East Asians suggests that the ancestral population of the Jomon people is one of the earliest wave migrants who might have taken a coastal route from Southeast Asia toward East Asia.11 It was also revealed that the Jomon people are genetically closely related to the Ainu/Ryukyuan population and that 10-20% of the genomic components found in mainland Japanese are derived from the Jomon people.8,10 Recent studies have found that, in addition to the "East Asian" population, which is closely related to modern Han Chinese, the "Northeast Asian" population also contributed to the ancestry of modern Japanese people.12,13 Cooke et al. 202113 showed the deep divergence of the Jomon people from continental populations, including the "East Asians" and "Northeast Asians"; thus, it can be concluded that the modern mainland Japanese are a population with genomic components derived from a basal East Asian lineage (i.e., the Jomon people) and from continental East Asians.
  26. ^ Aoki, Kenichi; Takahata, Naoyuki; Oota, Hiroki; Wakano, Joe Yuichiro; Feldman, Marcus W. (30 August 2023). "Infectious diseases may have arrested the southward advance of microblades in Upper Palaeolithic East Asia". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 290 (2005). doi:10.1098/rspb.2023.1262. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 10465978. PMID 37644833. These observations are consistent with the view that soon after the single eastward migration of modern humans, East Asians diverged in southern East Asia and dispersed northward across the continent.
  27. ^ Cooke, Niall P.; Mattiangeli, Valeria; Cassidy, Lara M.; Okazaki, Kenji; Stokes, Caroline A.; Onbe, Shin; Hatakeyama, Satoshi; Machida, Kenichi; Kasai, Kenji; Tomioka, Naoto; Matsumoto, Akihiko; Ito, Masafumi; Kojima, Yoshitaka; Bradley, Daniel G.; Gakuhari, Takashi (2021). "Ancient genomics reveals tripartite origins of Japanese populations". Science Advances. 7 (38): eabh2419. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.2419C. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abh2419. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 8448447. PMID 34533991. We then asked whether the Jomon had any contact with continental Upper Paleolithic people after the divergence of their lineage, but before their isolation in the archipelago, using the statistic f4(Mbuti, X; Jomon, Han/Dai/Japanese) (fig. S8, C to E). Among the Upper Paleolithic individuals tested, only Yana_UP is significantly closer to Jomon than Han, Dai, or Japanese, respectively (Z > 3.366). This affinity is still detectable even if we replace these reference populations with the other Southeast and East Asians (table S6), supporting gene flow between the ancestors of Jomon and Ancient North Siberians, a population widespread in North Eurasia before the LGM (19).
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