Delphic maxims

Temple of Apollo at Delphi, by Albert Tournaire

The Delphic maxims are a set of moral precepts that were inscribed on the Temple of Apollo in the ancient Greek precinct of Delphi. The three best known maxims – "Know thyself", "Nothing in excess", and "Give a pledge and trouble is at hand" – were prominently located at the entrance to the temple, and were traditionally said to have been authored by the legendary Seven Sages of Greece, or even by Apollo. In fact, they are more likely to have simply been popular proverbs. Each maxim has a long history of interpretation, although the third of the set has received comparatively little attention.

A further 147 maxims, documented by Stobaeus in the 5th century AD, were also located somewhere in the vicinity of the temple. The antiquity and authenticity of these maxims was once in doubt, but recent archaeological discoveries have confirmed that some of the sayings quoted by Stobaeus were current as early as the 3rd century BC.

Entrance maxims[edit]

Three maxims are known to have been inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi at least as early as the 5th century BC, and possibly earlier.[1] These inscriptions are routinely referenced and discussed by ancient authors; Plato, for example, mentions them in six of his dialogues.[a] Their exact location is uncertain; they are variously stated to have been on the wall of the pronaos (forecourt), on a column, on a doorpost, on the temple front, or on the propylaea (gateway).[3]

Although the temple was destroyed and rebuilt several times over the years, the maxims appear to have persisted into the Roman era (1st century AD), at which time, according to Pliny the Elder, they were written in letters of gold.[1][4]

The maxims are as follows:

No. Greek Romanized transliteration[5] English[1][6]
001 Γνῶθι σεαυτόν Gnôthi seautón (or se autón[7]) Know thyself
002 Μηδὲν ἄγαν Mēdèn ágan Nothing too much
003 Ἐγγύα πάρα δ' Ἄτα Engúa pára d' Áta Give a pledge and trouble is at hand

These sayings were traditionally said to have originated with the Seven Sages, a legendary group of philosophers and statesmen who flourished in the 6th century BC.[8] The first known reference to the Seven Sages is in Plato's Protagoras, where they are said to have collectively authored the first two maxims.[9][10] The names of the sages are given by Plato as Thales, Pittacus, Bias, Solon, Cleobulus, Myson and Chilon; but in the works of later writers, some of these names are dropped and others added in their place. Each of the maxims was often attributed to a particular sage, and some authors, such as Demetrius of Phalerum, assigned additional sayings to the four remaining sages. There was no general agreement over which maxim belonged to which sage, but "Know thyself" was most commonly attributed to Chilon.[8][10][11]

Another popular theory held that the maxims were first spoken by the Delphic oracle, and therefore represented the wisdom of the god Apollo.[10] Clearchus of Soli, among others, attempted to reconcile the two accounts by claiming that Chilon, enquiring of the oracle what was best to be learnt, received the answer "Know thyself", and subsequently adopted the maxim as his own.[12] In all likelihood, however, the sayings were simply common proverbs of much earlier date, which gained a new significance from their prominent position on the temple.[10][13]

First maxim[edit]

Main article: Know thyself

The first maxim, "Know thyself", has been called "by far the most significant of the three maxims, both in ancient and modern times".[14] In its earliest appearances in ancient literature, it was interpreted to mean that one should understand one's limitations and know one's place in the social scale.[15] The first application of the phrase to self-knowledge in the modern sense occurs in Plato's Phaedrus, in which Socrates says that he has no leisure to investigate the truth behind common mythological beliefs while he has not yet discovered the truth about his own nature.[16][17] Many authors throughout history have considered knowledge of the self to involve knowledge of other people, knowledge of the universe, and/or knowledge of God; consequently, alongside its metaphysical, self-reflexive sense, the maxim has been applied in a host of different ways to problems of science, ethics, and theology.

Second maxim[edit]

In ancient Greece, the maxim "Nothing too much" was only rarely understood to mean that one should place limits on one's physical appetites, being far more commonly invoked as a reminder to avoid excessive emotion, particularly excessive grief.[18] It was also quoted by ancient authors as a warning against pride,[18] and considering its placement at the entrance to the temple, it may have been intended to convey that "man is not to exalt himself even in his piety"; in other words, that one should not make lavish sacrifices to the gods, but should humbly give what one can spare.[19][20]

The maxim has been said to have received its "ultimate expression" in Aristotle's theory of ethics, according to which every classical virtue occupies a middle place between the two extremes of excess and deficiency.[21] It is uncertain, however, whether the maxim was a direct influence on Aristotle, as it is not explicitly referenced in his Nicomachean Ethics (although it does occur twice in another of his works, the Rhetoric).[22] Several other phrases of similar import were current among Greek writers, such as "The half is more than the whole" and "Due measure is best", both of which are found in Hesiod's Works and Days (c. 700 BC).[23]

Interest in the "Nothing too much" dropped off during the medieval era, but it was frequently cited in the literature of the 16th and 17th centuries (often in its Latin form, Ne quid nimis).[24] From this time onwards, the rule of moderation enjoined by the maxim has been more frequently applied to physical pleasures than to emotional states.[25] In John Milton's Paradise Lost, for example, the archangel Michael advises Adam to "observe the rule of not too much ... in what thou eat'st and drink'st, seeking from thence due nourishment, not gluttonous delight".[26][25]

Some authors, such as 16th-century humanist Sperone Speroni, have criticized the maxim for its apparent endorsement of mediocrity.[27] Such criticism may be traced back as far as Pindar (5th century BC), who claimed that the philosophers of his day were excessive in their praise of the Delphic saying.[28] Similarly, 20th‑century essayist Paul Elmer More has argued that a too-rigorous adherence to the principle of moderation may have been the downfall of ancient Greek civilization.[29]

Third maxim[edit]

The third maxim, "Give a pledge and trouble is at hand", has been variously interpreted. The Greek word έγγύα, here translated "pledge", can mean either (a) surety given for a loan; (b) a binding oath given during a marriage ceremony; or (c) a strong affirmation of any kind.[30] Accordingly, the maxim may be a warning against any one of these things.

The correct interpretation of the maxim was being debated as early as the 1st century BC, when Diodorus Siculus discussed the question in his Bibliotheca historica.[31] In Plutarch's Septem sapientium convivium, the ambiguity of the phrase is said to have "kept many from marrying, and many from trusting, and some even from speaking".[32] Diogenes Laërtius (3rd century AD) also makes reference to the maxim in his account of the life of Pyrrho, the founder of Pyrrhonism.[33] Exploring the origins of the Pyrrhonean doctrine of philosophical skepticism, Diogenes claims that the Delphic maxims are skeptical in nature, and interprets the third maxim to mean: "Trouble attends him who affirms anything in strong terms and confidently".[34]

Analysing the various appearances of the maxim in Greek literature, Eliza Wilkins finds the opinion of the ancient authors on the meaning of έγγύα split between the two rival interpretations of "commit yourself emphatically" and "become surety". Among Latin authors, however, the maxim is universally interpreted in the latter sense, as advice against giving surety.[35]

147 maxims of Stobaeus[edit]

In the 5th-century anthology of Stobaeus, there is a list of a further 147 maxims attributed to the Seven Sages of Greece.[36]

List of maxims:
No. Greek Romanized transliteration English[b]
001 Ἕπου θεῷ Hépou theôi Follow God
002 Νόμῳ πείθου Nómōi peíthou Obey the law
003 Θεοὺς σέβου Theoùs sébou Worship the Gods
004 Γονεῖς αἰδοῦ Goneîs aidoû Respect your parents
005 Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίου Hēttô hupò dikaíou Be overcome by justice
006 Γνῶθι μαθών Gnôthi mathṓn Know what you have learned
007 Ἀκούσας νόει Akoúsas nóei Perceive what you have heard
008 Σαυτὸν ἴσθι Sautòn ísthi Be yourself
009 Γαμεῖν μέλλε Gameîn mélle Intend to get married
010 Καιρὸν γνῶθι Kairòn gnôthi Know your opportunity
011 Φρόνει θνητά Phrónei thnētá Think as a mortal
012 Ξένος ὢν ἴσθι Xénos ṑn ísthi If you are a stranger act like one
013 Ἑστίαν τίμα Hestían tíma Honour the hearth (or Hestia)
014 Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦ Árkhe seautoû Control yourself
015 Φίλοις βοήθει Phílois boḗthei Help your friends
016 Θυμοῦ κράτει Thumoû krátei Control anger
017 Φρόνησιν ἄσκει Phrónēsin áskei Exercise prudence
018 Πρόνοιαν τίμα Prónoian tíma Honour providence
019 Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶ Hórkōi mḕ khrô Do not use an oath
020 Φιλίαν ἀγάπα Philían agápa Love friendship
021 Παιδείας ἀντέχου Paideías antékhou Cling to discipline
022 Δόξαν δίωκε Dóxan díōke Pursue honour
023 Σοφίαν ζήλου Sophían zḗlou Long for wisdom
024 Καλὸν εὖ λέγε Kalòn eû lége Praise the good
025 Ψέγε μηδένα Psége mēdéna Find fault with no one
026 Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήν Epaínei aretḗn Praise virtue
027 Πρᾶττε δίκαια Prâtte díkaia Practice what is just
028 Φίλοις εὐνόει Phílois eunóei Be kind to your friends
029 Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνου Ekhthroùs amúnou Watch out for your enemies
030 Εὐγένειαν ἄσκει Eugéneian áskei Exercise nobility of character
031 Κακίας ἀπέχου Kakías apékhou Shun evil
032 Κοινὸς γίνου Koinòs gínou Be impartial
033 Ἴδια φύλαττε Ídia phúlatte Guard what is yours
034 Ἀλλοτρίων ἀπέχου Allotríōn apékhou Shun what belongs to others
035 Ἄκουε πάντα Ákoue pánta Listen to everyone
036 Εὔφημος ἴσθι Eúphēmos ísthi Be (religiously) silent
037 Φίλῳ χαρίζου Phílōi kharízou Do a favour for a friend
038 Μηδὲν ἄγαν Mēdèn ágan Nothing to excess
039 Χρόνου φείδου Khrónou pheídou Use time sparingly
040 Ὅρα τὸ μέλλον Hóra tò méllon Foresee the future
041 Ὕβριν μίσει Húbrin mísei Despise insolence
042 Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦ Hikétas aidoû Have respect for suppliants
043 Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζου Pâsin harmózou Be accommodated in everything
044 Υἱοὺς παίδευε Huioùs paídeue Educate your sons
045 Ἔχων χαρίζου Ékhōn kharízou Give what you have
046 Δόλον φοβοῦ Dólon phoboû Fear deceit
047 Εὐλόγει πάντας Eulógei pántas Speak well of everyone
048 Φιλόσοφος γίνου Philósophos gínou Be a seeker of wisdom
049 Ὅσια κρῖνε Hósia krîne Choose what is divine
050 Γνοὺς πρᾶττε Gnoùs prâtte Act when you know
051 Φόνου ἀπέχου Phónou apékhou Shun murder
052 Εὔχου δυνατά Eúkhou dunatá Pray for things possible
053 Σοφοῖς χρῶ Sophoîs khrô Consult the wise
054 Ἦθος δοκίμαζε Êthos dokímaze Test the character
055 Λαβὼν ἀπόδος Labṑn apódos Give back what you have received
056 Ὑφορῶ μηδένα Huphorô mēdéna Down-look no one
057 Τέχνῃ χρῶ Tékhnēi khrô Use your skill
058 Ὃ μέλλεις, δός Hò mélleis, dós Do what you mean to do
059 Εὐεργεσίας τίμα Euergesías tíma Honour a benefaction
060 Φθόνει μηδενί Phthónei mēdení Be jealous of no one
061 Φυλακῇ πρόσεχε Phulakêi prósekhe Be on your guard
062 Ἐλπίδα αἴνει Elpída aínei Praise hope
063 Διαβολὴν μίσει Diabolḕn mísei Despise a slanderer
064 Δικαίως κτῶ Dikaíōs ktô Gain possessions justly
065 Ἀγαθοὺς τίμα Agathoùs tíma Honour good men
066 Κριτὴν γνῶθι Kritḕn gnôthi Know the judge
067 Γάμους κράτει Gámous krátei Master wedding-feasts
068 Τύχην νόμιζε Túkhēn nómize Recognize fortune
069 Ἐγγύην φεῦγε Engúēn pheûge Flee a pledge
070 Ἁπλῶς διαλέγου Haplôs dialégou Speak plainly
071 Ὁμοίοις χρῶ Homoíois khrô Associate with your peers
072 Δαπανῶν ἄρχου Dapanôn árkhou Govern your expenses
073 Κτώμενος ἥδου Ktṓmenos hḗdou Be happy with what you have
074 Αἰσχύνην σέβου Aiskhúnēn sébou Revere a sense of shame
075 Χάριν ἐκτέλει Khárin ektélei Fulfill a favour
076 Εὐτυχίαν εὔχου Eutukhían eúkhou Pray for happiness
077 Τύχην στέργε Túkhēn stérge Be fond of fortune
078 Ἀκούων ὅρα Akoúōn hóra Observe what you have heard
079 Ἐργάζου κτητά Ergázou ktētá Work for what you can own
080 Ἔριν μίσει Érin mísei Despise strife
081 Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρε Óneidos ékhthaire Detest disgrace
082 Γλῶτταν ἴσχε Glôttan ískhe Restrain the tongue
083 Ὕβριν ἀμύνου Húbrin amúnou Keep yourself from insolence
084 Κρῖνε δίκαια Krîne díkaia Make just judgements
085 Χρῶ χρήμασιν Khrô khrḗmasin Use what you have
086 Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζε Adōrodókētos díkaze Judge incorruptibly
087 Αἰτιῶ παρόντα Aitiô parónta Accuse one who is present
088 Λέγε εἰδώς Lége eidṓs Tell when you know
089 Βίας μὴ ἔχου Bías mḕ ékhou Do not depend on strength
090 Ἀλύπως βίου Alúpōs bíou Live without sorrow
091 Ὁμίλει πρᾴως Homílei prā́iōs Live together meekly
092 Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶν Péras epitélei mḕ apodeiliôn Finish the race without shrinking back
093 Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσιν Philophrónei pâsin Deal kindly with everyone
094 Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶ Huioîs mḕ katarô Do not curse your sons
095 Γυναικὸς ἄρχε Gunaikòs árkhe Rule your wife
096 Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίει Seautòn eû poíei Benefit yourself
097 Εὐπροσήγορος γίνου Euprosḗgoros gínou Be courteous
098 Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷ Apokrínou en kairôi Give a timely response
099 Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείας Pónei met’ eukleías Struggle with glory
100 Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτως Prâtte ametanoḗtōs Act without repenting
101 Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόει Hamartánōn metanóei Repent of sins
102 Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτει Ophthalmoû krátei Control the eye
103 Βουλεύου χρόνῳ Bouleúou khrónōi Give a timely counsel
104 Πρᾶττε συντόμως Prâtte suntómōs Act quickly
105 Φιλίαν φύλαττε Philían phúlatte Guard friendship
106 Εὐγνώμων γίνου Eugnṓmōn gínou Be grateful
107 Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκε Homónoian díōke Pursue harmony
108 Ἄρρητον κρύπτε Árrhēton krúpte Keep deeply the top secret
109 Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦ Tò kratoûn phoboû Fear ruling
110 Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶ Tò sumphéron thērô Pursue what is profitable
111 Καιρὸν προσδέχου Kairòn prosdékhou Accept due measure
112 Ἔχθρας διάλυε Ékhthras diálue Do away with enmities
113 Γῆρας προσδέχου Gêras prosdékhou Accept old age
114 Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶ Epì rhṓmēi mḕ kaukhô Do not boast in might
115 Εὐφημίαν ἄσκει Euphēmían áskei Exercise (religious) silence
116 Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγε Apékhtheian pheûge Flee enmity
117 Πλούτει δικαίως Ploútei dikaíōs Acquire wealth justly
118 Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπε Dóxan mḕ leîpe Do not abandon honour
119 Κακίαν μίσει Kakían mísei Despise evil
120 Κινδύνευε φρονίμως Kindúneue phronímōs Venture into danger prudently
121 Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνε Manthánōn mḕ kámne Do not tire of learning
122 Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπε Pheidómenos mḕ leîpe Do not stop to be thrifty
123 Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζε Khrēsmoùs thaúmaze Admire oracles
124 Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπα Hoùs trépheis, agápa Love whom you rear
125 Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχου Apónti mḕ mákhou Do not oppose someone absent
126 Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦ Presbúteron aidoû Respect an elder
127 Νεώτερον δίδασκε Neṓteron dídaske Teach a youngster
128 Πλούτῳ ἀπίστει Ploútōi apístei Do not trust wealth
129 Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦ Seautòn aidoû Respect yourself
130 Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζειν Mḕ árkhe hubrízein Do not begin to be insolent
131 Προγόνους στεφάνου Progónous stephánou Crown your ancestors
132 Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδος Thnêske hupèr patrídos Die for your country
133 Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθου Tôi bíōi mḕ ákhthou Do not be discontented by life
134 Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλα Epì nekrôi mḕ géla Do not make fun of the dead
135 Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθου Atukhoûnti sunákhthou Share the load of the unfortunate
136 Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶς Kharízou ablabôs Gratify without harming
137 Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦ Mḕ epì pantì lupoû Grieve for no one
138 Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γέννα Ex eugenôn génna Beget from noble routes
139 Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενί Epangéllou mēdení Make promises to no one
140 Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκει Phthiménous mḕ adíkei Do not wrong the dead
141 Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητός Eû páskhe hōs thnētós Be well off as a mortal
142 Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευε Túkhēi mḕ písteue Do not trust fortune
143 Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθι Paîs ṑn kósmios ísthi As a child be well-behaved
144 Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής Hēbôn enkratḗs As a youth—self-disciplined
145 Μέσος δίκαιος Mésos díkaios As of middle-aged—just
146 Πρεσβύτης εὔλογος Presbútēs eúlogos As an old man—sensible
147 Τελευτῶν ἄλυπος Teleutôn álupos On reaching the end—without sorrow

Archaeological evidence[edit]

Stobaeus cites a certain Sosiades as his source, but the identity of Sosiades is unknown, and it was once thought that this collection of maxims was of no great antiquity.[38][39] In 1901, however, a parallel collection was discovered at Miletopolis in modern-day Turkey, inscribed on a stele dating from the 3rd or 4th century BC. The stele is broken in two places; the surviving portion carries a list of 56 maxims which closely correspond to those given by Stobaeus, and it is probable that the original text contained all 147.[39][40]

Inscription at Ai-Khanoum, 3rd century BC

Another inscription, discovered in 1966 at Ai-Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan, presents the final five maxims of Stobaeus, and reports that these maxims were originally found at "holy Pytho", i.e. Delphi. The inscription, dating from the 3rd century BC, reads as follows:[41]

The stone which bears this inscription formed the base of a stele, and a small fragment of the stele itself survives. The legible text on the stele, as reconstructed by Louis Robert, reads "Ε[ὐλόγει πάντας], Φιλόσοφ[ος γίνου]", which corresponds to Stobaeus no. 47 and 48 ("Speak well of everyone; Be a seeker of wisdom").[40][43] Robert suggested that the stele and base together bore the full list of 147 maxims, with the final five having been appended to the base due to the stonecutter running out of room.[44] On the evidence of these inscriptions, it is now regarded as certain that the sayings preserved by Stobaeus were once inscribed at Delphi, and that their influence was felt not only in Greece, but throughout the wider Hellenistic world.[44][40]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Notes

  1. ^ Benjamin Jowett's index to his translation of the Dialogues of Plato lists six dialogues which mention the Delphic inscriptions: Charmides (164D), Protagoras (343B), Phaedrus (229E), Philebus (45E, 48C), Laws (11.923A), Alcibiades I (124B, 129A, 132C).[2]
  2. ^ As translated by A. N. Oikonomides, who warns that his translations must be taken as "provisional", since "these thought provoking brief commandments are by no means the type of text that can be assigned easily as having one meaning."[37]
  3. ^ The author of the inscription, "Klearchos", is often thought to be Aristotle's student, Clearchus of Soli, but this identification is unlikely.[42]

Citations

  1. ^ a b c Wilkins, Eliza G. (1929). The Delphic Maxims in Literature. University of Chicago Press. p. 1.
  2. ^ Jowett, Benjamin (1892). The Dialogues of Plato. Vol. 5. Macmillan and Co. p. 445.
  3. ^ Wilkins 1929, p. 3
  4. ^ Pliny the Elder. "Natural History". 7.32 – via Perseus Digital Library.
  5. ^ Moore, Christopher (2020). Calling Philosophers Names: On the Origin of a Discipline. Princeton University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-691-23022-1.
  6. ^ Stuhr, John J. (2016). "The Unexamined Life and Surface Pleasures". The Journal of Speculative Philosophy. 30 (2): 163–174. doi:10.5325/jspecphil.30.2.0163. ISSN 0891-625X. JSTOR 10.5325/jspecphil.30.2.0163.
  7. ^ Blackburn, Simon (2016). The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-19-873530-4.
  8. ^ a b Parke, H.; Wormell, D. (1956). The Delphic Oracle. Vol. 1. Basil Blackwell. p. 387.
  9. ^ Plato. "Protagoras". 343a–343b – via Perseus Digital Library.
  10. ^ a b c d Wilkins 1929, pp. 8–9
  11. ^ Verhasselt, Gertjan (2022). "The Seven Sages and the Inscription of Ai Khanoum". In Mayhew, Robert; Mirhady, David C. (eds.). Clearchus of Soli: Text, Translation and Discussion. Routledge. p. 521.
  12. ^ Verhasselt 2022, pp. 520, 523
  13. ^ Parke & Wormell 1956, p. 389
  14. ^ Wilkins 1929, p. 49
  15. ^ Wilkins 1929, pp. 49–52
  16. ^ Plato. "Phaedrus". 229e–230a – via Perseus Digital Library.
  17. ^ Wilkins 1929, pp. 58–59
  18. ^ a b Wilkins 1929, p. 26
  19. ^ Nilsson, Martin P. (1949). A History of Greek Religion. Translated by Fielden, F. J. Oxford University Press. pp. 197–198.
  20. ^ Castro, David Hernández (2019). "Empedocles without Horseshoes: Delphi's Criticism of Large Sacrifices". Symposion. 6 (2): 139. doi:10.5840/symposion20196210.
  21. ^ More, Paul Elmer (1905). "Delphi and Greek Literature". Shelburne Essays. 2nd series. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 199.
  22. ^ Wilkins 1929, pp. 19, 22
  23. ^ Wilkins 1929, p. 19
  24. ^ Wilkins 1929, pp. 26–28
  25. ^ a b Wilkins 1929, pp. 38–39
  26. ^ Milton, John (1674). Paradise Lost (2nd ed.). Book XI, lines 530–533.
  27. ^ Wilkins 1929, pp. 44–47
  28. ^ Wilkins 1929, pp. 20, 26
  29. ^ More 1905, pp. 217–218
  30. ^ Wilkins, Eliza G. (April 1927). "Ἐγγύα πάρα δ' Ἄτα in literature". Classical Philology. 22 (2): 122.
  31. ^ Diodorus Siculus. "Bibliotheca historica". 9.10.4–5 – via Perseus Digital Library.
  32. ^ Plutarch. "Septem sapientium convivium". Section 21 – via Perseus Digital Library.
  33. ^ Diogenes Laërtius. "Lives of the Eminent Philosophers". 9.71 – via Wikisource.
  34. ^ Wilkins 1927, p. 129
  35. ^ Wilkins 1927, p. 130
  36. ^ Wachsmuth, Kurt; Hense, Otto, eds. (1884). Joannis Stobaei Anthologium (in Latin). Vol. 3. Berolini apud Weidmannos. pp. 125–128.
  37. ^ Oikonomides, A. N. (Summer 1987). "Records of 'The Commandments of the Seven Wise Men' in the 3rd c. B.C.". The Classical Bulletin. 63 (3): 67–76.
  38. ^ Petzl, Georg (2017). "Philosophical Stones". In Perilli, L.; Taormina, D. P. (eds.). Ancient Philosophy: Textual Paths and Historical Explorations. Routledge. pp. 66–69. ISBN 9781351716031.
  39. ^ a b Judge, E. A. (1998). "Ancient Beginnings of the Modern World". In Hillard, T. W.; Kearsley, R. A.; Nixon, C. E. V.; Nobbs, A. M. (eds.). Ancient History in a Modern University. Vol. 2. William B. Eerdmans. pp. 473–476. ISBN 0-8028-3841-3.
  40. ^ a b c Oikonomides, A. N. (1980). "The Lost Delphic Inscription with the Commandments of the Seven and P. Univ. Athen 2782". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 37: 179–183. JSTOR 20185842.
  41. ^ Wallace, Shane (October 2016). "Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries". Greece & Rome. Second Series. 63 (2): 215. doi:10.1017/S0017383516000073. JSTOR 26776786.
  42. ^ Wallace 2016, p. 217
  43. ^ Robert, Louis (1968). "De Delphes à l'Oxus, inscriptions grecques nouvelles de la Bactriane". Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (in French). 112 (3): 430.
  44. ^ a b Kurke, Leslie (2011). Aesopic Conversations. Princeton University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-691-14457-3.

External links[edit]

  • "Delphic Maxims" at Hellenion – alternative English translation of the 147 maxims
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