architecture. The caliphate disintegrated in the early 11th century during the Fitna of al-Andalus, a civil war between the descendants of caliph Hisham II and...

Berber chieftains, was prone to unruliness. In the wake of the start of the fitna of al-Andalus, Valencia became the head of an independent emirate, initially...

932, following an extensive siege. In the wake of the early 11th-century Fitna of al-Andalus, Toledo became the centre of an independent polity, the so-called...

beginning of a long period of civil war and conflict in Al-Andalus known as the Fitna. Berbers entered and sacked Córdoba in May 1013. Hisham III was routed from...

reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph, was marred by the First Fitna, or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After...

fomented by Almanzor and their descendants, the Amirids, triggered the fitna. The deposition of Hisham III and the abolition of the caliphate in 1031...

units were one of the main causes of the 11th-century civil war called the Fitna of al-Andalus. Berber forces were also joined by contingents of well-paid...