Historical Armenian population

Accurate or reliable data for historical populations of Armenians is scarce, but scholars and institutions have proposed estimates for different periods.

For most recent data on Armenian populations, see Armenian population by country.

Ancient

[edit]

Tadevos Hakobyan estimated, based on the available information such as army size and tax records, that ancient Armenia's population did not exceed 5–6 million.[1] Elizabeth Redgate also suggested that Armenia's historical population may have never exceeded 5 or 6 million as most of its extent was not fit for settlement.[2] Similarly, David Marshall Lang noted that while its areas historically equaled that of England and Wales together, it "never supported a population of more than five or six millions" as "almost two thirds of the territory of historical Armenia must be classified as unfit for settled habitation."[3]

Based on historical records, Igor M. Diakonoff estimated the population of Urartu as having "certainly exceeded one million and may have reached two or three million".[4] He also found 6 to 7 million a "plausible figure."[5] For around 585 BC, John M. Douglas proposed an approximate population of 3 million for Urartu and 2 million for Proto-Armenians.[6]

Ruben L. Manaseryan estimated the population of the short-lived empire of Tigranes the Great (r. 95 – 55 BC) at 10 million.[7] Sedrak Krkyasharyan estimated over 10.5 million people in his empire, including around 4 million Armenians.[8] Earlier estimates by non-historians such as Jacques de Morgan, Isaac Don Levine and Bodil Biørn put it considerably higher, at 25 and 30 million.[9][10][11] Hakob Manandian posited that the population of Armenia during the reigns of Artaxias I and Tigranes II was "much larger than that of later centuries."[12]

Agathangelos wrote that during the Christianization of Armenia in the early fourth century more than 4,000,000 men, women and children and more than 150,000 soldiers (a total of 4,150,000) were baptized by Gregory the Illuminator.[13][14] Malachia Ormanian accepted the figure,[15] while Edmond Schütz found the figure for the population of Greater Armenia “obviously exaggerated.”[16] Suren Yeremian proposed 4 million as the population of both Arsacid Armenia and of Armenians.[17][18]

Medieval

[edit]

Based on tax records, Arsen Shahinyan estimated the population of Arminiya, an administrative unit of the Abbasid Caliphate, in the 8th and 9th centuries at 1.5 million, including 750,000 in Arminiya I (Greater Armenia), around 650,000 in Arminiya II (Arran, i.e. Caucasian Albania), and around 100,000 in Arminiya III (Jurzan, i.e. Eastern Georgia).[19]

Serob Poghosyan estimated Armenia's population in the 9th–11th centuries, when much of it was ruled by the Bagratids, at 5 to 6 million.[20] Mikayel Malkhasyan estimated Vaspurakan's population in the same period at no less than a million people.[21]

Hakobyan suggested that Armenia's population reached 5 to 6 million only in the 13th century, prior to the Mongol invasion, when he estimated 4.5 million people in rural areas and around 500,000 in cities.[1] Others have estimated Armenia's population in the mid-13th century at 4 million.[22][23] Based on tax records, Manandian estimated the combined population of eastern Armenia, Kars and eastern Georgia (Kartli and Kakheti) in the mid-13th century at 4 to 5 million.[24]

Modern Armenian scholars believe that the medieval Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia had a population of around one million, most of whom were Armenians.[25][26]

19th and early 20th century

[edit]

August von Haxthausen quoted Catholicos Nerses V (then archbishop) as having told him in 1843 that he can assert with confidence the existence of more than eight million Armenians worldwide, including 30,000 Catholic Armenians in the Russian Caucasus.[27]

In 1847 John Wilson estimated the total Armenian population at 2.5 million, with 1 million in the Russian Empire, 1 million in the Ottoman Empire and 0.5 million in Persia and "other distant lands." He quoted the figures provided by Lucas Balthazar, the "intelligent editor" of the Smyrna-based Armenian newspaper The Dawn of Ararat,[a] who estimated 5 million Armenians overall, with 2 million in Russia, 2 million in Turkey and 1 million in Persia, India and elsewhere.[28]

Armenian population worldwide, estimated by Édouard Dulaurier (c. 1850). Total: 4,000,000[29]

  Ottoman Empire (62.5%)
  Russian Empire (30%)
  Persia (3.75%)
  Austrian Empire (0.625%)
  South and Southeast Asia (0.625%)
  Elsewhere (2.5%)

The 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1875) cited Édouard Dulaurier's estimates c. 1850: approximately four millions Armenians in the world, including 2,500,000 in the Ottoman Empire, 1,200,000 in the Russian Empire, 25,000 in the Austrian Empire, 150,000 in Persia and Azerbaijan, 25,000 in continental India and the Archipelago of Asia, and the remainder of 100,000 scattered in various countries.[29]

Richard Robert Madden wrote in 1862 that the Armenian population worldwide is estimated at 4 million, of whom an estimated 2,400,000 in the Ottoman Empire ("an approximate computation, and probably below the truth"), 900,000 in the Russian Empire, 600,000 in Persia, 40,000 in India and "other realms of Asia", and 60,000 in "various European countries."[30]

In 1876 John Buchan Telfer, quoted the figures provided by Garabed Ghazarosian in his 1873 The Universal Year Book, which estimated a total of 4.2 million Armenians worldwide, including 2.5 million in Turkish dominions, 1.5 million in Russia, 34,000 in Persia, 14,600 in Austria, 15,000 in England, India and other British possessions, 8,400 in Romania, 8,000 in Egypt, and 120,000 in other countries.[31][32] In 1891, Telfer reported to the Royal Society of Arts that "most authorities" appear to agree that the total Armenian population worldwide amounts to around 5 million, with most "scattered in their own land and in adjoining territories" and nearly half a million "settled in distant parts."[33]

In 1891 Élisée Reclus wrote that while "usually estimated at three and even four millions," the total number of Armenians "would seem scarcely to exceed two millions." He estimated the "probable" number of Armenians as follows: 840,000 in Caucasia and European Russia, 760,000 in Asiatic Turkey, and 250,000 in European Turkey, 150,000 in Persia, and 60,000 elsewhere, with the total at 2,060,000. He estimated no less than 200,000 Armenians in Constantinople and noted that Tiflis held the second largest Armenian population of any city.[34]

At the 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions, Armenian activist Minas Tcheraz [hy] claimed that there were 5.1 million Armenians in total, including 80,000 Catholics and 20,000 Protestants.[35]

In his 1896 book Story of Turkey and Armenia Reverend James Wilson Pierce estimated 2.4 million Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1.25 million in the Russian Empire, 150,000 in Persia, 100,000 in Europe and 5,000 in the United States.[36]

Adrian Fortescue wrote in 1916: "There are said to be about three and a half or four million Armenians in the world—1,300,000 in Turkey, 1,200,000 in Russia, 50,000 in Persia, and the rest dispersed throughout the world. Of these about three quarters belong to the Monophysite ("Gregorian") Church."[37]

Ottoman Empire

[edit]
See also: Ottoman Armenian population

Russian Empire

[edit]

According to the Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia, what is now Armenia (historically known as Eastern Armenia) that came under Russian rule in 1828, had a population of 161,700 in 1831, which rose to reach 1.01 million by 1913.[38]

According to the Russian Empire Census of 1897, there were 1,173,096 native speakers of Armenian in the empire.[39] The religious statistics indicated there to be 1,179,241 Armenian Apostolics and 38,840 Catholic Armenians, amounting to a total of 1,218,081.[40]

Estimates by John Foster Fraser (1907)[41] and Richard G. Hovannisian (2005)[42] put the number of Armenians within the Russian Empire in the early 20th century at around 2 million. According to official estimates for 1916, published in the Kavkazskiy kalendar, 1,859,663 Armenians lived in Russia's Caucasus Viceroyalty alone.[43]

20th century

[edit]

1911

[edit]

Armenian population worldwide, estimated by Malachia Ormanian (1911). Total: 3,508,950

  Ottoman Empire (48.7%)
  Russian Empire (45%)
  Elsewhere (6.3%)

Malachia Ormanian, a scholar and former Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, estimated the population of Christian Armenians by the dioceses of the Armenian Apostolic Church in his 1911 book The Church of Armenia.[44] It is the most detailed population distribution estimates available prior to the Armenian genocide. Robert Hewsen wrote that "Ormanian's figures appear moderate and reasonable, although this does not necessarily make them precise."[45] Levon Marashlian notes that "the purpose of Ormanian's book was not to provide comprehensive population statistics" and that "his numbers for [Armenian] Protestants and Catholics may be even more incomplete" than for Armenian Apostolics.[46]

Country/territory Armenians
 Ottoman Empire 1,709,550
 Russian Empire 1,579,500
Persia 83,400
United States 50,000
Western Europe
(United Kingdom Great Britain, France,  Belgium,   Switzerland) 		21,000
Bulgaria 20,000
Egypt 15,500
Romania Romania 10,000
Austria-Hungary 9,000
India and Indochina 6,000
Netherlands Dutch East Indies 4,000
Greece 1,000
Total 3,508,950

21st century

[edit]

2012

[edit]

Armenia Encyclopedia, 2012[52]

Previous censuses

[edit]

By country

[edit]
Soviet statistics from 1926 to 1989 for the former Soviet republics are given below and not repeated in this table.
Country/territory[d] Ethnic Armenians People born in Armenia
(of any ethnicity)
 Armenia 3,145,354 (2001 census)[53]
2,961,801 (2011 census)[54] 		2,927,306 (2001 census)[55]
2,821,026 (2011 census)[56]
 Russia 1,130,491 (2002 census)[57][58]
1,182,388 (2010 census)[59] 		481,328 (2002 census)[60]
511,150 (2010 census)[61]
 United States 212,621 (1980 census)[62]
308,096 (1990 census)[63]
385,488 (2000 census)[64]
474,559 (2010 ACS)[65] 		36,628 (1920 census)[66][67]
32,166 (1930 census)[68]
65,280 (2000 census)[69]
89,261 (2010 ACS)[70]
 Georgia 248,929 (2002 census)[71]
168,102 (2014 census)[72] 		9,158 (2014 census)[73]
 Artsakh[e] 137,380 (2005 census)[74]
144,683 (2015 census)[75] 		14,676 (2005 census)[76]
16,335 (2015 census)[77]
 Canada 37,500 (1996 census)[78]
40,505 (2001 census)[79]
50,500 (2006 census)[80]
55,740 (2011 census)[81]
63,810 (2016 census)[82] 		2,195 (2006 census)[83]
4,165 (2016 census)[84]
 Turkey 77,000 (1927 census)[85]
61,000 (1935 census)[85]
60,000 (1945 census)[85]
60,000 (1955 census)[85]
 Abkhazia[f] 44,869 (2003 census)[86][87]
41,906 (2011 census)[88]
 Australia 14,667 (2001 census)[89]
15,761 (2006 census)[90]
16,698 (2011 census)[91]
19,247 (2016 census)[92] 		1,159 (2016 census)[92]
 Kazakhstan 14,758 (1999 census)[93]
13,776 (2009 census)[94]
 Bulgaria 13,677 (1992 census)[95]
10,832 (2001 census)[96]
6,552 (2011 census)[97]
 Romania 12,175 (1930 census)[98]
6,441 (1956 census)[99]
3,436 (1966 census)[100]
2,342 (1977 census)[101]
1,957 (1992 census)[102]
1,780 (2002 census)[103]
1,361 (2011 census)[104]
 Belarus 10,191 (1999 census)[105]
8,512 (2009 census)[106]
9,392 (2019 census)[107]
 Cyprus 1,197 (1921 census)[108]
3,377 (1931 census)[108]
3,962 (1946 census)[109]
3,378 (1960 census)[110]
1,831 (2011 census)[g][111]
 Poland 1,082 (2002 census)[112]
3,000 (2011 census)[113]
 Latvia 83 (1935 census)[114]
2,644 (2000 census)[114]
2,632 (2011 census)[115]
 Lithuania 1,477 (2001 census)[116]
1,233 (2011 census)[116]
 Hungary 1,165 (2001 census)[117]
3,571 (2011 census)[117]
 Tajikistan 995 (2000 census)[118]
434 (2010 census)[118]
 New Zealand 228 (2013 census)[119]
276 (2018 census)[120]

Former countries and territories

[edit]
Country/territory Ethnic Armenians People born in Armenia
Lebanese Republic 31,992 (1932 census)[121]
 Hatay State 24,911 (1936 census)[122][123]
 Kingdom of Egypt 17,188 (1927 census)[124]
United Kingdom Mandatory Palestine 3,210 (1922 census)[125]
3,524 (1931 census)[125]
 British India 1,705 (1911 census)[126] 40 (1911 census)[127]
United Kingdom British Singapore 16 (1824 census)[128]
19 (1826 census)[129]
34 (1836 census)[130]
81 (1931 census)[131][132]

Soviet republics (1926–1989)

[edit]

The distribution of Armenians in the Soviet Union according to the 1979 census

  Armenian SSR (65.6%)
  Azerbaijan SSR (11.5%)
  Georgian SSR (10.8%)
  Russian SFSR (8.8%)
  Rest (3.3%)

Precise figures are available for the number of Armenians in the Soviet Union and its constituent republics because all censuses in the USSR enumerated people by ethnicity.

Republic 1926[133][134] 1939[135][136] 1959[137][138] 1970[139][140] 1979[141][142] 1989[143][144] Born in ArmSSR (1989)[145]
Soviet Union 1,567,568 2,152,860 2,786,912 3,559,151 4,151,241 4,623,232 2,971,930
Armenian SSR 743,571 1,061,997 1,551,610 2,208,327 2,724,975 3,083,616 2,570,422
Azerbaijan SSR 282,004 388,025 442,089 483,520 475,486 390,505 137,027
↳ NKAO 111,694 132,800 110,053 121,068 123,076 145,450 2,834
Georgian SSR 313,741 415,013 442,916 452,309 448,000 437,211 37,742
↳ Abkhazia 13,477 49,705 64,425 74,850 73,350 76,541 3,078
Russian SFSR 195,410 218,156 255,978 298,718 364,570 532,390 151,484
Uzbek SSR 14,976 20,394 27,370 34,470 42,374 50,537 12,280
Ukrainian SSR 10,631 21,688 28,024 33,439 38,646 54,200 36,498
Turkmen SSR 13,859 15,996 19,696 23,054 26,605 31,829 4,436
Kazakh SSR 7,777 9,284 12,518 14,022 19,119 10,756
Tajik SSR 1,272 2,878 3,787 4,861 5,651 2,302
Kirghiz SSR 728 1,919 2,688 3,285 3,975 1,701
Byelorussian SSR 99 1,814 1,751 2,362 2,751 4,933 2,912
Moldavian SSR 1,218 1,336 1,953 2,873 1,318
Latvian SSR 1,060 1,511 1,913 3,069 1,399
Lithuanian SSR 471 508 955 1,655 895
Estonian SSR 648 604 845 1,669 758

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Notes
  1. ^ Ղուկաս Պալդազարեան of «Արշալոյս Արարատեան», Arshaluys Araratian
  2. ^ 89.7% of 3,072,000 (as of 1979)
  3. ^ "Additionally, over 1,000,000 Islamized Armenians"
  4. ^ Non-UN member states are indicated in italics.
  5. ^ Artsakh/Nagorno-Karabakh Republic is a disputed area. It is de facto independent, but is internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan.
  6. ^ The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from Georgia in 1992, Abkhazia is formally recognised as an independent state by 5 UN member states (two other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it as de jure Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it as Russian-occupied territory.
  7. ^ Cypriot citizens only
Citations
  1. ^ a b Hakobyan, Tadevos (1984) [1968]. Հայաստանի պատմական աշխարհագրություն [Historical Geography of Armenia] (in Armenian) (4th ed.). Yerevan University Press. pp. 64, 349.
  2. ^ Redgate, A. E. (2000). The Armenians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 9780631220374.
  3. ^ Lang, David Marshall (1970). Armenia: Cradle of Civilization. London: Allen & Unwin. p. 30. With its mighty mountains topped by eternal snow, two great lakes, and countless ravines and canyons, almost two thirds of the territory of historical Armenia must be classified as unfit for settled habitation. Large tracts of the Armenian plateau can yield only a scanty living to nomads and their herds. Although its territory once equalled that of England and Wales together, Armenia has never supported a population of more than five or six millions.
  4. ^ Diakonoff, I. M. (1984) [1968]. The Pre-History of the Armenian People [Предыстория армянского народа]. Translated by Lori Jennings. Delmar, N.Y.: Caravan Books. p. 124. According to the data of Sarduri II's annals, within the Urartian Empire he abolished the duty of military service for 350,000 men.105 This means that the population of Urartu certainly exceeded one million and may have reached two or three million.
  5. ^ Diakonoff, Igor M. (2000). "Lights on the Social History of Urartu". In Arbeitman, Yoël L. (ed.). The Asia Minor Connexion: Studies on the Pre-Greek Languages in Memory of Charles Carter. Peeters Publishers. p. 57. ISBN 9789042907980. The total population of Urartu would be ca. six-seven million, which is a plausible figure. Cf. also the computations in I. M. Diakonoff, The Pre-history of the Armenian People, 1984, Delmar, N.Y., pp. 123ss.
  6. ^ Douglas, John M. (1992). The Armenians. J.J. Winthrop Corporation. p. 30. ISBN 9780963138101. The population of Urartu around 585 B.C. was approximately three million and that of Arme was two million.
  7. ^ Manaseryan, Ruben L. [in Armenian] (2022). "Տիգրան Մեծի անձի և գործունեության գնահատականի շուրջ" (PDF). Vem: 39. doi:10.57192/18291864-2022.3-33. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-02-10. Հայոց արքայի իշխելը 10 միլիոն բնակչություն ունեցող 900.000 կմ² տարածքի վրա
  8. ^ "Демография государства Великая Армения во времена Тиграна II Великого [Demographics of the state of Greater Armenia during the time of Tigran II the Great]", published in Russian on March 25, 2020 by times.am (archived) and voskanapat.info (archived). "численность армянского населения в I в. до н. э. составляла около 4 млн. человек. [...] Таким же образом можно вычислить численность населения державы Тиграна Великого. Оно составляло более 10,5 млн. человек."
  9. ^ de Morgan, Jacques (1917). Essai sur les nationalités (in French). Paris: Berger-Levrault. p. 115. Or, leurs ambitions ne vont nulle- ment jusqu'à désirer comme frontières les limites du royaume de Tigrane le Grand. L'Arménie comptait alors 25 millions d'habitants, tandis qu'aujourd'hui cette nation, éprouvée par tant de massacres, d'émigrations et de conversions forcées, ne comprend plus que tout au plus 4 millions d'âmes, dont environ la moitié habite des territoires qui, politiquement, font partie de l'Empire du Tsar.
  10. ^ Levine, Isaac Don (1919). The Resurrected Nations. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company. p. 265.
  11. ^ Bodil Katharine Biørn (1944). Armenia og armenierne (in Norwegian). "Armenia var tidligere et kongerike som var størst under Digranes den store. Han grunnla Digranagerd (Diabekir) og regjerte over 30 mill. mennesker."; published in Kvinnelige misjonsarbeidere, Se til hvorledes i bygger videre, K.M.A. gjennom 50 år (Oslo, 1952); translated into Armenian «Հայաստանը նախկինում թագավորություն է եղել, որն ամենամեծն է եղել Տիգրան Մեծի օրոք։ Նա հիմնել է Տիգրանակերտը (Դիարբեքիր) և կառավարել ավելի քան 30 մլն բնակչության։»
  12. ^ Manandyan, Hakob; translation and introduction by George A. Bournoutian (2007). Tigranes II and Rome. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-56859-166-7.
  13. ^ Agathangelos (1976). History of the Armenians. Translation, introduction and commentary by Robert W. Thomson (First ed.). Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. lxvii–lxviii, 369371. ISBN 0-87395-323-1. Gregory now prepared to baptise the people of Armenia. [...] That day over 150,000 soldiers were baptised, and during the following week over 4,000,000 people.
  14. ^ Ayvazyan, Armen (April 15, 2015). "Armenia's Conversion to Christianity". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 10 February 2024.
  15. ^ Ormanian, Malachia (1912). Ազգապատում : Հայ ուղղափառ եկեղեցւոյ անցքերը սկիզբէն մինչեւ մեր օրերը յարակից ազգային պարագաներով պատմուած : Մասն Ա (PDF). Constantinople. p. 96. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-02-16. Մկրտուածներու թիւը 400 բիւր ըսուած է. որ է 4 միլիոն, այլ պէտք է այս թիւը բոլոր այդ միջոցին զանազան կողմեր մկրտուածներուն վրայ տարածել, եւ ոչ թէ նոյն օր մկրտուածներուն վրայ, վասնզի այդ թիւը դրուած է յայնմ աւուրս մկրտուած այր ու կին ու մանուկ ի միասին հաշուելով (ԱԳԹ. 435):{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  16. ^ Schütz, Edmond (1978). "Review of Agathangelos: History of the Armenians". Journal of Asian History. 12 (2): 172–173. JSTOR 41930298. The population figure of four millions given for the ancient Great Armenia, although obviously exaggerated, suggests Armenian preponderance in this region.
  17. ^ Yeremian, S. (1984). Հայ Ժողովրդի Պատմություն, Հ. 2. [History of the Armenian People. Vol. 2] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences. p. 144. Այս ժամանակաշրջանում ամբողջ հայկական պետությունը, որի տարածքը 311 հազար քառ. կմ էր՝ մոտ չորս միլիոն ազգաբնակչությամբ...
  18. ^ Yeremian, S. (1987). "Հայեր [Armenians]". Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. Vol. 13: Soviet Armenia. p. 28. Yeremian: 301-ին հայերը քրիստոնեությունն ընդունեցին որպես պետ․ կրոն։ Այդ ժամանակաշրջանում հայերի թիվը հասնում էր շուրջ 4 մլն մարդու, իսկ Մեծ Հայքի պետության տարածքը՝ 312 հզ․ կմ2։
  19. ^ Shahinyan, Arsen K. (2014). "Արմինիյա Արաբական Նահանգի Ու Նրա Վարչական Միաւորների Բնակչութեան Մօտաւոր Թուաքանակը [An Estimation of the Population Figures of the Wilayat of Arminiya and its Administrative Units]" (PDF). Haigazian Armenological Review (in Armenian). 34. Beirut: 195–203. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-10.
  20. ^ Poghosyan, Serob [in Armenian] (1975). "Սոցիալ-տնտեսական հարաբերությունները և քաղաքական կարգերը IX—XI դարերում [Socio-economic relations and political order in the 9th-11th centuries]". In Melik‑Bakhshyan, Stepan [in Armenian] (ed.). Հայ ժողովրդի պատմություն․ Սկզբից մինչև XVIII դարի վերջը [History of the Armenian People: From the Beginning to the late 18th century] (PDF) (in Armenian). Yerevan: Yerevan University Press. pp. 427–428. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2023. Հայաստանում IX—XI դարերում [...] Կարելի է ենթադրել, որ Հայաստանը այդ ժամանակ ուներ 5—6 միլիոն բնակչություն։
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  22. ^ Bedrosian, Robert Gregory (1979). The Turco-Mongol Invasions and the Lords of Armenia in the 13th–14th centuries. New York: Columbia University. p. 123. modern scholars estimate the Armenian population of Greater Armenia (excluding Cilicia) to have been about 4 million in the mid-13th century.
  23. ^ Pubblici, Lorenzo (2022). Mongol Caucasia: Invasions, Conquest, and Government of a Frontier Region in Thirteenth-Century Eurasia (1204-1295). Brill. p. 218. ISBN 978-90-04-50355-7. Some estimates indicate the Armenian population of Caucasia (excluding Cilicia) of around 4 million in those years.12 = 12 Bedrosian, The Turco-mongol, 120–21; Dedeyan, Storia degli Ameni, [Dédéyan, Gerard, Boghos Levon Zekiyan, and Antonia Arslan, eds. Storia degli armeni. Guerini e Associati, 2002.] 242, whose calculations coincide with those provided by Bedrosian.
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Further reading

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